8.3 Information Processing

I. Introduction

A. Definition of information processing

Information processing refers to the way humans perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve information from their environment.

B. Importance of understanding information processing in psychology

• A key aspect of understanding human cognition and behavior
• Contributes to the development of more effective learning, teaching, and therapeutic strategies

II. Theoretical Models of Information Processing

A. Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968)

1. Sensory memory
   • Brief storage of sensory information (visual, auditory, etc.)
   • Allows for initial processing and selection of relevant information
2. Short-term memory (STM)
   • Temporary storage of information, limited in capacity (~7 items) and duration (~20-30 seconds)
   • Information can be maintained through rehearsal
3. Long-term memory (LTM)
   • Relatively permanent storage of information, unlimited in capacity and duration
   • Information can be retrieved and transferred back to STM for use

B. Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model (1974)

1. Central executive
   • Coordinates and controls the flow of information between other components
   • Plays a role in attention, decision-making, and problem-solving
2. Phonological loop
   • Processes and stores verbal and auditory information
   • Comprises two components: the phonological store and the articulatory rehearsal process
3. Visuospatial sketchpad
   • Processes and stores visual and spatial information
   • Allows for mental manipulation of images and spatial relationships
4. Episodic buffer
   • Temporary storage system that integrates information from different sources (e.g., auditory, visual, and semantic)
   • Facilitates the formation of episodic memories

C. Connectionist models

1. Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
   • Information is processed simultaneously across multiple interconnected nodes or units
   • Learning occurs through adjusting the strength of connections between nodes
2. Artificial neural networks
   • Computer-based models that simulate the structure and function of biological neural networks
   • Capable of learning complex patterns and making predictions based on input data

III. Stages of Information Processing

A. Encoding

1. Automatic vs. controlled processing
   • Automatic processing: effortless, unconscious, and parallel
   • Controlled processing: effortful, conscious, and serial
2. Levels of processing theory
   • Deeper levels of processing (e.g., semantic, elaborative) lead to better memory encoding and retention than shallow levels (e.g., phonetic, structural)

B. Storage

1. Duration of memory storage
   • Sensory memory

• Milliseconds to seconds
• Short-term memory: seconds to minutes
• Long-term memory: minutes to a lifetime
• Capacity of memory storage
  • Sensory memory: large capacity, limited by attention and selection
  • Short-term memory: limited capacity (~7 items)
  • Long-term memory: virtually unlimited capacity

C. Retrieval

1. Recall vs. recognition
   • Recall: retrieving information from memory without cues
   • Recognition: identifying previously learned information with the help of cues
2. Retrieval cues
   • External or internal stimuli that aid in the retrieval of information from memory
3. Context-dependent memory
   • Memory retrieval is enhanced when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding
4. State-dependent memory
   • Memory retrieval is enhanced when the physiological or psychological state during retrieval matches the state during encoding

IV. Factors Affecting Information Processing

A. Cognitive load

1. Intrinsic load
   • Cognitive demands inherent to the complexity of the material being learned
2. Extraneous load
   • Cognitive demands imposed by the manner in which the material is presented, rather than the material itself
3. Germane load
   • Cognitive resources dedicated to the construction and automation of schemas

B. Attention

1. Selective attention
   • The ability to focus on a specific stimulus while ignoring irrelevant information
2. Divided attention
   • The capacity to attend to and process multiple stimuli simultaneously
3. Sustained attention
   • The ability to maintain focus on a task or stimulus over an extended period of time

C. Motivation and emotion

1. Arousal
   • The level of physiological activation, ranging from sleep to extreme excitement
   • Moderate levels of arousal are optimal for information processing and memory performance
2. Valence
   • The intrinsic attractiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus
   • Positive valence can facilitate learning, while negative valence can hinder it
3. Mood-congruent memory
   • The tendency to recall information that is congruent with one’s current mood

V. Applications of Information Processing Theory

A. Education

1. Cognitive load theory in instructional design
   • Designing instructional materials to minimize extraneous cognitive load and maximize germane cognitive load
   • Using multimedia and other tools to support learning
2. Enhancing memory and learning strategies
   • Techniques such as elaboration, organization, and mnemonics to improve encoding and retrieval
   • Spacing and interleaving of study sessions to enhance long-term retention

B. Human-computer interaction

1. Designing user interfaces
   • Creating interfaces that align with users’ cognitive abilities and limitations
   • Utilizing visual hierarchy, consistency, and feedback to facilitate efficient information processing
2. Improving human-computer communication
   • Developing natural language processing and understanding algorithms
   • Implementing context-aware and adaptive systems

C. Cognitive therapy

1. Identifying and modifying maladaptive thought patterns
   • Techniques such as cognitive restructuring to help individuals recognize and change distorted thinking
2. Promoting cognitive flexibility
   • Encouraging adaptive problem-solving and perspective-taking to enhance overall cognitive functioning

VI. Conclusion

A. Summary of key points

• Information processing is a crucial aspect of human cognition
• Various theoretical models and stages help describe how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved
• Numerous factors, such as cognitive load, attention, and motivation, influence information processing
• Applications of information processing theory can be found in education, human-computer interaction, and cognitive therapy

B. Importance of ongoing research in information processing

• Further research can lead to a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms and factors that influence information processing
• Continued study can help refine existing models and theories

C. Future directions and potential applications

• Integration of neuroscientific findings with information processing models
• Exploration of individual differences in information processing capacities
• Development of personalized learning and therapeutic interventions based on information processing profiles