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Psychology (Optional) Notes & Mind Maps

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  1. 1. INTRODUCTION
    1.1 Definition of Psychology
  2. 1.2 Historical antecedents of Psychology and trends in the 21st century
  3. 1.3 Psychology and scientific methods
  4. 1.4 Psychology in relation to other social sciences and natural sciences
  5. 1.5 Application of Psychology to societal problems
  6. 2. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
    2.1 Types of research: Descriptive, evaluative, diagnostic, and prognostic
  7. 2.2 Methods of Research: Survey, observation, case-study, and experiments
  8. 2.3 Experimental, Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
  9. 2.4 Focused group discussions
  10. 2.5 Brainstorming
  11. 2.6 Grounded theory approach
  12. 3. RESEARCH METHODS
    3.1 Major Steps in Psychological research
    6 Submodules
  13. 3.2 Fundamental versus applied research
  14. 3.3 Methods of Data Collection
    3 Submodules
  15. 3.4 Research designs (ex-post facto and experimental)
  16. 3.5 Application of Statistical Technique
    5 Submodules
  17. 3.6 Item Response Theory
  18. 4. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
    4.1 Growth and Development, Principles of Development
  19. 4.2 Role of genetic and environmental factors in determining human behavior
  20. 4.3 Influence of cultural factors in socialization
  21. 4.4 Life span development (Characteristics, development tasks, promoting psychological well-being across major stages of the life span)
  22. 5. SENSATION, ATTENTION, AND PERCEPTION
    5.1 Sensation
    2 Submodules
  23. 5.2 Attention: factors influencing attention
    1 Submodule
  24. 5.3 Perception
    11 Submodules
  25. 6. LEARNING
    6.1 Concept and theories of learning (Behaviourists, Gestaltalist and Information processing models)
  26. 6.2 The Processes of extinction, discrimination, and generalization
  27. 6.3 Programmed learning
  28. 6.4 Probability Learning
  29. 6.5 Self-Instructional Learning
  30. 6.6 Types and the schedules of reinforcement
  31. 6.7 Escape, Avoidance and Punishment
  32. 6.8 Modeling
  33. 6.9 Social Learning
  34. 7. MEMORY
    7.1 Encoding and Remembering
  35. 7.2 Short term memory
  36. 7.3 Long term memory
  37. 7.4 Sensory Memory - Iconic, Echoic & Haptic Memory
  38. 7.5 Multistore Model of Memory
  39. 7.6 Levels of Processing
  40. 7.7 Organization and Mnemonic techniques to improve memory
  41. 7.8 Theories of forgetting: decay, interference and retrieval failure
  42. 7.9 Metamemory
  43. 8. THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
    8.1 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
  44. 8.2 Concept formation processes
  45. 8.3 Information Processing
  46. 8.4 Reasoning and problem-solving
  47. 8.5 Facilitating and hindering factors in problem-solving
  48. 8.6 Methods of problem-solving: Creative thinking and fostering creativity
  49. 8.7 Factors influencing decision making and judgment
  50. 8.8 Recent Trends in Thinking and Problem Solving
  51. 9. Motivation and Emotion
    9.1 Psychological and physiological basis of motivation and emotion
  52. 9.2 Measurement of motivation and emotion
  53. 9.3 Effects of motivation and emotion on behavior
  54. 9.4 Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
  55. 9.5 Factors influencing intrinsic motivation
  56. 9.6 Emotional competence and the related issues
  57. 10. Intelligence and Aptitude
    10.1 Concept of intelligence and aptitude
  58. 10.2 Nature and theories of intelligence: Spearman, Thurstone, Guilford Vernon, Sternberg and J.P Das
  59. 10.3 Emotional Intelligence
  60. 10.4 Social Intelligence
  61. 10.5 Measurement of intelligence and aptitudes
  62. 10.6 Concept of IQ
  63. 10.7 Deviation IQ
  64. 10.8 The constancy of IQ
  65. 10.9 Measurement of multiple intelligence
  66. 10.10 Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence
  67. 11. Personality
    11.1 Definition and concept of personality
  68. 11.2 Theories of personality (psychoanalytical, sociocultural, interpersonal, developmental, humanistic, behaviouristic, trait and type approaches)
  69. 11.3 Measurement of personality (projective tests, pencil-paper test)
  70. 11.4 The Indian approach to personality
  71. 11.5 Training for personality development
  72. 11.6 Latest approaches like big 5-factor theory
  73. 11.7 The notion of self in different traditions
  74. 12. Attitudes, Values, and Interests
    12.1 Definition of attitudes, values, and interests
  75. 12.2 Components of attitudes
  76. 12.3 Formation and maintenance of attitudes
Module 41 of 76
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7.8 Theories of forgetting: decay, interference and retrieval failure

Forgetting

  • Inability to Recall
    • Loss of access to stored memories
    • Fading of memory traces over time
    • Memory consolidation issues
  • Inability to Recognize
    • Failure to identify previously learned information
    • Mismatch between encoding and retrieval cues
  • Types of Forgetting
    • Intentional
      • Suppression
      • Motivated forgetting
    • Unintentional
      • Decay theory
      • Interference theory
      • Retrieval failure theory
  • Factors Influencing Forgetting
    • Individual differences
      • Age
      • Memory capacity
      • Cognitive abilities
    • Environmental factors
      • Context
      • Encoding specificity
    • Emotional factors
      • Stress
      • Trauma
  • Importance of Forgetting
    • Adaptive value
      • Prioritizing relevant information
      • Facilitating new learning
    • Memory management
      • Preventing cognitive overload
      • Enhancing decision-making

Decay Theory

  • Basic Premise
    • Memory traces weaken over time
    • Lack of use or rehearsal leads to forgetting
  • Role of Time
    • Time as a major factor
    • Longer intervals lead to more forgetting
  • Memory Systems
    • Sensory memory
      • Brief duration
      • Rapid decay
    • Short-term memory
      • Limited capacity
      • Decay occurs within seconds to minutes
    • Long-term memory
      • Larger capacity
      • Slower decay process
  • Examples and Experiments
    • Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
      • Rapid forgetting initially
      • Gradual decline over time
    • Brown-Peterson task
      • Distractor tasks
      • Short-term memory decay
  • Criticisms
    • Inability to explain all instances of forgetting
    • Confounding variables
      • Interference
      • Retrieval failure
    • Inconsistency in decay rates
  • Real-world Implications
    • Strategies for improving memory
      • Spaced repetition
      • Active recall
    • Education and learning
      • Timely review of materials
      • Structured study sessions

Interference Theory

  • Basic Premise
    • Forgetting occurs due to competition between memories
    • New and old memories interfere with each other
  • Types of Interference
    • Retroactive interference
      • New memories impair old memories
      • Difficulty recalling previously learned information
    • Proactive interference
      • Old memories impair new memories
      • Difficulty learning new information
  • Factors Affecting Interference
    • Similarity of information
      • Greater interference with similar memories
    • Temporal proximity
      • Interference increases with closer learning events
  • Examples and Experiments
    • McGeoch and McDonald (1931)
      • Learning lists of words
      • Retroactive interference demonstrated
    • Underwood (1957)
      • Proactive interference
      • Learning multiple lists
  • Criticisms
    • Inability to explain all instances of forgetting
    • Confounding variables
      • Decay
      • Retrieval failure
    • Overemphasis on laboratory studies
  • Real-world Implications
    • Strategies for reducing interference
      • Varied practice
      • Sleep and consolidation
    • Education and learning
      • Curriculum design
      • Spacing and interleaving

Retrieval Failure Theory

  • Basic Premise
    • Forgetting occurs due to inability to access stored memories
    • Insufficient cues or mismatch between encoding and retrieval
  • Factors Affecting Retrieval
    • Encoding specificity
      • Memories encoded with specific cues
      • Cues present during encoding facilitate retrieval
    • Context-dependent memory
      • Environmental context affects memory retrieval
      • Similar context enhances recall
    • State-dependent memory
      • Internal states affect retrieval
      • Emotional, physiological states influence recall
    • Tip of the tongue phenomenon
      • Partial retrieval
      • Inability to fully recall information
  • Examples and Experiments
    • Godden and Baddeley (1975)
      • Diving experiment
      • Context-dependent memory
    • Eich and Metcalfe (1989)
      • State-dependent memory
      • Mood-congruent recall
    • Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)
      • Cued recall
      • Encoding specificity
  • Criticisms
    • Inability to explain all instances of forgetting
    • Confounding variables
      • Decay
      • Interference
    • Difficulty in isolating retrieval factors
  • Real-world Implications
    • Strategies for enhancing retrieval
      • Elaborative encoding
      • Mnemonics
    • Education and learning
      • Contextualized learning
      • Retrieval practice

Differences and similarities between decay, interference, and retrieval failure theories

Aspect Decay Theory Interference Theory Retrieval Failure Theory
Basic Premise Memory traces weaken over time due to lack of use or rehearsal. Forgetting occurs due to competition between memories. Forgetting occurs due to inability to access stored memories.
Key Factors Time and lack of rehearsal. Similarity of information and temporal proximity. Encoding specificity, context, and internal states.
Memory Systems Affects sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Primarily affects long-term memory. Primarily affects long-term memory.
Examples Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, Brown-Peterson task. McGeoch and McDonald (1931), Underwood (1957). Godden and Baddeley (1975), Eich and Metcalfe (1989).
Criticisms Inability to explain all instances of forgetting, inconsistency in decay rates, confounding variables. Inability to explain all instances of forgetting, overemphasis on laboratory studies, confounding variables. Inability to explain all instances of forgetting, difficulty in isolating retrieval factors, confounding variables.
Real-world Implications Spaced repetition, active recall, structured study sessions. Varied practice, sleep and consolidation, spacing and interleaving. Elaborative encoding, mnemonics, contextualized learning, retrieval practice.

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