Anthropology (Optional) Mind Map Notes + Related Current Affairs
-
INSTRUCTIONS & SAMPLES
How to use -
Samples4 Submodules
-
PAPER 1Meaning, scope and development of Anthropology
-
Relationships with other disciplines6 Submodules
-
Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and relevance
-
Human Evolution and emergence of Man3 Submodules
-
Biological and Cultural factors in human evolution
-
Theories of Organic Evolution (PreDarwinian, Darwinian and Post-Darwinian)
-
Synthetic theory of evolution; Brief outline of terms and concepts of evolutionary biology (Doll’s rule, Cope’s rule, Gause’s rule, parallelism, convergence, adaptive radiation, and mosaic evolution)
-
Biological and Cultural factors in human evolution
-
Primates7 Submodules
-
Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical distribution of the following:5 Submodules
-
Plio-pleistocene hominids in South and East Africa – Australopithecines
-
Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe (Homo erectus heidelbergensis), Asia (Homo erectus javanicus, Homo erectus pekinensis)
-
Neanderthal Man- La-Chapelle-auxsaints (Classical type), Mt. Carmel (Progressive type)
-
Rhodesian man
-
Homo sapiens — Cromagnon, Grimaldi, and Chancelede
-
Plio-pleistocene hominids in South and East Africa – Australopithecines
-
The biological basis of life5 Submodules
-
Archaeology, Chronology & Cultural Evolution7 Submodules
-
Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology; Chronology: Relative and Absolute Dating methods
-
[Cultural Evolution] Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures - Palaeolithic
-
[Cultural Evolution] Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures - Mesolithic
-
[Cultural Evolution] Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures - Neolithic
-
[Cultural Evolution] Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures - Chalcolithic
-
[Cultural Evolution] Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures - Copper-Bronze Age
-
[Cultural Evolution] Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures - Iron Age
-
Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology; Chronology: Relative and Absolute Dating methods
-
The Nature of Culture3 Submodules
-
The Nature of Society5 Submodules
-
Marriage6 Submodules
-
Marriage: Definition and universality
-
Laws of marriage (endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, hypogamy, incest taboo)
-
Types of marriage (monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, group marriage)
-
Functions of marriage
-
Marriage regulations (preferential, prescriptive and proscriptive)
-
Marriage payments (bride wealth and dowry)
-
Marriage: Definition and universality
-
Family5 Submodules
-
Kinship6 Submodules
-
Kinship: Consanguinity and Affinity
-
Principles and types of descent (Unilineal, Double, Bilateral, Ambilineal)
-
Forms of descent groups (lineage, clan, phratry, moiety and kindred)
-
Kinship terminology (descriptive and classificatory)
-
Descent, Filiation and Complimentary Filiation
-
Descent and Alliance Theories in Kinship Studies
-
Kinship: Consanguinity and Affinity
-
Economic organization5 Submodules
-
Meaning, scope and relevance of economic anthropology
-
Formalist and Substantivist debate
-
Principles governing production, distribution and exchange in communities - Reciprocity, redistribution and market
-
Principles governing production, distribution and exchange in communities - Subsisting on hunting and gathering, fishing, etc
-
Globalization and indigenous economic systems
-
Meaning, scope and relevance of economic anthropology
-
Political organization and Social Control3 Submodules
-
Religion7 Submodules
-
Anthropological approaches to the study of religion (evolutionary, psychological and functional)
-
Monotheism and polytheism
-
Sacred and profane
-
Myths and rituals
-
Forms of religion in tribal and peasant societies (animism, animatism, fetishism, naturism and totemism)
-
Religion, magic and science distinguished
-
Magicoreligious functionaries (priest, shaman, medicine man, sorcerer and witch)
-
Anthropological approaches to the study of religion (evolutionary, psychological and functional)
-
Anthropological theories13 Submodules
-
Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan and Frazer)
-
Historical particularism (Boas)
-
Diffusionism (British, German and American)
-
Functionalism (Malinowski)
-
Structural-Functionalism (Radcliffe-Brown)
-
Structuralism (L’evi – Strauss and E.Leach)
-
Culture and personality (Benedict, Mead, Linton, Kardiner and Cora – du Bois)
-
Neo – evolutionism (Childe, White, Steward, Sahlins and Service)
-
Cultural materialism (Harris)
-
Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider and Geertz)
-
Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin)
-
Post- modernism in anthropology
-
Multilinear evolutionism
-
Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan and Frazer)
-
Culture, language and communication3 Submodules
-
Research methods in anthropology4 Submodules
-
Fieldwork tradition in anthropology
-
Distinction between technique, method and methodology
-
Tools of data collection: observation, interview, schedules, questionnaire, Case study, genealogy, life-history, oral history, secondary sources of information, participatory methods
-
Analysis, interpretation and presentation of data
-
Fieldwork tradition in anthropology
-
Human Genetics: Methods & Application4 Submodules
-
Mendelian genetics3 Submodules
-
Concept of genetic polymorphism, Mendelian population, etc4 Submodules
-
Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection
-
Mendelian population, HardyWeinberg law
-
Causes and changes which bring down frequency – mutation, isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic drift
-
Consanguineous and non-consanguineous mating, genetic load, genetic effect of consanguineous and cousin marriages
-
Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection
-
Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations in man, methodology5 Submodules
-
Chromosomes – Intro
-
Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders)
-
Sex chromosomal aberrations – Klinefelter (XXY), Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other syndromic disorders
-
Autosomal aberrations – Down syndrome, Patau, Edward and Cri-du-chat syndromes
-
Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic screening, genetic counseling, human DNA profiling, gene mapping and genome study
-
Chromosomes – Intro
-
Race and racism5 Submodules
-
Age, Sex, Population, Physiological Characteristics2 Submodules
-
Ecological Anthropology4 Submodules
-
Epidemiological Anthropology4 Submodules
-
Concept of human growth and development8 Submodules
-
Demography4 Submodules
-
Applications of Anthropology6 Submodules
-
PAPER 2Evolution of the Indian Culture and Civilization4 Submodules
-
Palaeo (Anthropological evidences from India with special reference to Siwaliks and Narmada basin)4 Submodules
-
Ethno-archaeology in India3 Submodules
-
Demographic profile of India3 Submodules
-
The structure and nature of traditional Indian social system4 Submodules
-
Caste system in India7 Submodules
-
Sacred Complex and Nature2 Submodules
-
Impact of Religion on Indian society3 Submodules
-
Emergence and growth of anthropology in India3 Submodules
-
Indian Village5 Submodules
-
Linguistic and religious minorities2 Submodules
-
Indigenous and exogenous processes of socio-cultural change in Indian society7 Submodules
-
Tribal situation in India5 Submodules
-
Problems of the tribal Communities5 Submodules
-
Development Projects & Tribes4 Submodules
-
SC, ST & OBCs5 Submodules
-
Social change and contemporary tribal societies3 Submodules
-
Ethnicity & Tribes7 Submodules
-
Impact of religions on tribes5 Submodules
-
Tribe and nation state: a comparative study of tribal communities in India and other countries.
-
Tribal Administration & Development10 Submodules
-
Tribes during colonial period
-
History of administration of tribal areas
-
History of tribal policies
-
History of tribal plans
-
History of tribal programmes
-
Implementation of policies, plans, programmes of tribal development
-
The concept of PTGs (Primitive Tribal Groups)
-
PVTG distribution
-
Special programmes for PVTG development
-
Role of N.G.O.s in tribal development
-
Tribes during colonial period
-
Role of anthropology in tribal & rural development
-
Contributions of anthropology3 Submodules
-
RELATED CURRENT AFFAIRSRelated current affairs
Principles governing production, distribution and exchange in communities – Reciprocity, redistribution and market
Introduction
Exchange is a fundamental social rule in every society, forming the backbone of human relationships and economic transactions. From simple tribal communities to complex modern societies, the exchange of goods and services has evolved into diverse forms such as reciprocity, redistribution, and market systems. These types of exchange highlight the intricate interplay of social obligations, cultural values, and economic needs. In this article, we explore these three forms of exchange, their characteristics, and their role in human societies.
Reciprocity
Definition
Reciprocity refers to a type of exchange commonly observed in tribal societies. It is based on the principle of mutuality and involves the exchange of goods and services between people bound by kinship, marriage, or social ties.
Characteristics
- Nature of Relationships:
- Occurs in non-market, non-hierarchical relationships.
- Participants are often structurally equal in terms of wealth, status, and power.
- Role in Society:
- Strengthens natural bonds and ensures social cohesion.
- Functions as a gift exchange that sustains relationships.
- Example:
- Among the Bemba community, gifts are exchanged during childbirth ceremonies at a sister’s house.
Types of Reciprocity (Marshall Sahlins’ Classification)
- Generalized Reciprocity:
- Involves unconditional gift-giving without expecting immediate or specific returns.
- Found among close kin and family members.
- Example: Sharing a large hunt or philanthropy.
- Balanced Reciprocity:
- Involves a clear obligation to return an equivalent gift or service within a defined time frame.
- Fosters formal friendships, group alliances, or peacekeeping efforts.
- Example: The Kula exchange in Melanesian societies or marriage transactions.
- Negative Reciprocity:
- Occurs between antagonistic parties or strangers.
- Involves taking advantage of others, often through force or deceit.
- Example: Cattle raiding, wife raiding, or stealing.
Criticism
- Tim Ingold’s View:
- Both positive and negative aspects (e.g., sharing and demand) coexist within kinship-based exchanges.
- Even in close relationships, phenomena like theft or barter may arise at the societal periphery.
Redistribution
Definition
According to Karl Polanyi, redistribution involves the systematic collection of goods at a central authority and their subsequent reallocation among members of society.
Characteristics
- Vertical Structure:
- Central authority (e.g., king or chief) distributes goods to followers.
- Reflects status differences and social stratification.
- Economic Context:
- Typically occurs in economies with marginal surplus.
- Origins:
- Based on cooperation between rulers and followers.
- The king or central authority legitimizes their rule by providing protection and redistributing resources.
Examples
- Potlatch Ceremony (Kwakiutl Indians):
- Wealth is destroyed or redistributed to reinforce social status.
- Trobriand Islanders (Malinowski):
- The king acts as a tribal banker, collecting taxes and organizing ceremonial feasts (e.g., Sagali).
- Proja Tribe (India):
- The community chief (Naik) organizes collective hunting (Beto) and redistributes the catch among villagers.
Market in Simple Societies
Social and Economic Functions
- Markets in simple societies, often referred to as tribal markets, perform predominantly social functions over economic ones.
- According to Karl Polanyi, two fundamental variables must be analyzed when studying markets:
- Market Place: A locality where the exchange of goods takes place.
- Market Principle: Based on supply and demand, though it may not always exist in tribal settings.
Tribal Markets
Features of Tribal Markets
- Peripheral Markets:
- The market place exists, but the market principle (supply and demand) may or may not operate.
- Markets are peripheral to both production and consumption processes.
- If eliminated, markets cause inconvenience but do not result in structural collapse of society.
- Part-Time Specialization:
- Raymond Firth highlighted that tribal markets often have part-time specialization, making goods more available than services.
- Special Entry Rules:
- Specific rules dictate participation in tribal markets.
- Example: Among the Dahomey tribe, women act as sellers, men as buyers, while cattle markets are monopolized by men.
Non-Economic Features of Tribal Markets
- Communication:
- Markets act as meeting places, fostering social integration.
- Example: In East African tribes, markets provide women opportunities to interact with their natal lineage.
- Political Functions:
- Controlling the market often equates to controlling goods, services, and people.
- Judicial Functions:
- Markets are often sites for delivering judgments and resolving disputes.
- Example: Sujit Sinha’s study of markets in West Bengal highlights their role in conflict resolution.
- Religious Functions:
- In some societies, markets emerge around religious shrines and become centers of religious ceremonies.
- Example: Among the Tiv, markets are closely tied to shrine activities.
- Entertainment:
- Market days often coincide with social festivities.
- Example: In West African tribes, market days are also beer-drinking days.
- Marriage Partners:
- Markets serve as venues for finding marriage partners.
- Example: Among the Bhil tribes of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, marriage by capture is a practice performed in markets.
Market in Modern Societies
Comparison with Tribal Markets
- Modern Markets:
- Operate strictly on the principles of supply and demand.
- Play a critical role in the production, distribution, and consumption of goods.
- Structural collapse may occur if markets are disrupted.
- Tribal Markets:
- Are peripheral to the economic structure and focus more on social cohesion and cultural integration.
Conclusion
Reciprocity, redistribution, and market systems represent fundamental modes of exchange that underpin human societies. While reciprocity emphasizes mutual exchange rooted in kinship and social bonds, redistribution highlights centralized control and the allocation of resources through authority. Markets, on the other hand, focus on trade governed by supply and demand, but their functions extend beyond economics, especially in simple societies, where they serve social, cultural, and political roles. Together, these systems demonstrate the diverse ways in which societies organize their economies, reflecting cultural values and social structures. Understanding these forms of exchange not only enriches our knowledge of human behavior but also provides insights into how economic systems adapt and evolve across different historical and cultural contexts.
- How do reciprocity and redistribution differ in their role and significance in tribal societies? (250 words)
- Discuss the relevance of Marshall Sahlins’ classification of reciprocity in understanding tribal economies. (250 words) (250 words)
- Discuss the differences between the economic functions of tribal and modern markets. (250 words)
Responses