20.1 Imperialism and Colonialism in South Asia

In the 18th century South Asia witnessed a clash of empires as European powers sought to expand their overseas dominions. It saw the intertwining of political dominance, economic exploitation, and profound cultural changes imposed by imperial rulers. From Portuguese coastal enclaves to British trading posts, and the strategic French and Dutch ports, colonial forces reshaped the region. Indigenous societies underwent deep transformations under this foreign influence, with colonial rule redefining governance and economies. Between the 18th and 20th centuries, European rivalry in India catalyzed new power dynamics, transforming warfare, economy, society, and administration in lasting ways.

European Colonial Ambitions in South Asia

• European exploration and maritime advancements in the late 15th and 16th centuries
  • Portuguese discover sea route to India (Vasco da Gama, 1498) and seize coastal enclaves (Goa, Daman, Diu)
  • Dutch East India Company (VOC) establishes trading posts in Sri Lanka and coastal India (Madras, Surat, Coromandel Coast)
  • French East India Company (La Compagnie française) forms settlements (Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Mahé, Karaikal)
  • British East India Company chartered 1600; builds trading factories (Surat, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) and forges alliances with Indian rulers
• Rivalries among European powers for spice trade and textiles
  • Naval conflicts (Anglo-Dutch Wars, Anglo-French conflicts) determine control of Indian Ocean trade routes
  • Decline of Portuguese power after 17th century as Dutch and British ascend
• Early relationships with Indian powers and princely states
  • Europeans initially engage in trade alliances with the Mughal Empire and regional rulers (Mysore, Marathas, Hyderabad)
  • Treaty diplomacy: French align with the Nawabs, British with Marathas and other states to expand influence
• Cultural exchange and missionary activity
  • Catholic missions (Portuguese, French) and Protestant missions (British) spread Christianity and Western education
  • Introduction of Western science, printing, and art into the subcontinent during the late 18th century

Portuguese Colonialism in India

• Establishment of Estado da Índia in the early 16th century (Goa captured 1510)
  • Goa becomes the capital of Portuguese India, a strategic port on the western coast
  • Control of maritime trade routes and spice ports (Cochin, Diu) along Indian Ocean circuits
• Administration and religion
  • Governed by Captains-General under the Portuguese Crown, backed by a colonial council in Goa
  • Enforcement of Catholicism: Jesuit and Franciscan missions convert locals; Portuguese Inquisition in Goa (1560–1812) persecutes non-Christians
• Economic impact
  • Monopoly on pepper, cinnamon, cloves shapes regional markets; engages in triangular trade (spices/textiles for silver)
  • Establishes plantation economies (sugar in Ceylon, slaves from Africa) for colonial profits
  • Declining influence by late 17th century due to competition from other Europeans and rising Indian powers (Marathas)
• Cultural legacy
  • Portuguese language and Indo-Portuguese creole survive in Goa and other enclaves
  • Architectural heritage: Baroque churches (Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa), forts (Fort Aguada, Diu)
  • Introduced New World crops (cashew, chili peppers) and fusion cuisine elements
• Resistance and decline
  • Local revolts and Maratha aggression limit Portuguese control by 18th century
  • By the 1700s Portuguese rule is largely restricted to Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra, and Nagar Haveli

Dutch Colonialism in South Asia

• Arrival of VOC in early 17th century
  • Establishes trading posts on the Coromandel Coast (Pulicat, Nagapatnam), Malabar Coast (Calicut), and Bengal (Chinsurah)
  • Takes Ceylon’s cinnamon trade by ousting the Portuguese (Siege of Jaffna, 1658)
• Trade and economy
  • Focus on spice trade: nutmeg, cloves, pepper from Ceylon and the Maluku Islands
  • VOC charters in Indonesia (Java, Sumatra) create a maritime commercial network linked to the Indian Ocean
• Alliances and conflicts
  • Forms alliances with Tamil kingdoms and local rulers to counter Portuguese and British rivals
  • Clashes with Marathas and Mysore disrupt Dutch trade; the VOC withdraws from India by late 18th century
• Legacy
  • The VOC’s administrative model influences later colonial practices (monopolistic trade companies)
  • Dutch cultural imprints in Sri Lanka (forts in Galle) and influence on spice commerce in the region

French Colonialism in India

• Establishment of French East India Company (1664) and trading posts
  • Pondicherry (Puducherry) founded 1674 as the central French colony in India
  • Other settlements: Chandernagore (Bengal), Mahé (Malabar), Karaikal, Yanaon
• Military alliances and conflicts
  • French align with the Nawab of Arcot and Hyder Ali of Mysore against the British East India Company
  • Carnatic Wars (1746–1763): Anglo-French battles in southern India determine colonial dominance (British victory leads to decline of French power)
  • Treaty of Paris (1763) restricts French possessions to small enclaves; France withdraws from major political contestation
• Influence and administration
  • Governed by a Governor-General of French India, with a small bureaucracy in each enclave
  • Introduces French legal concepts (Napoleonic Code influences civil law in colonies)
• Cultural impact
  • Spread of the French language among local elites and Eurasian communities (e.g., in Pondicherry)
  • Contribution to arts, cuisine, and secular education: established French schools and lycées in Indian territories
• Decline
  • Limited resources and military defeats confine French control to their settlements
  • After Indian independence (1947), French territories integrated into India (Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe, Yanaon annexed 1954)

British East India Company (EIC) and Early Colonial Rule

• Foundation and early trading posts (17th century)
  • EIC chartered by Queen Elizabeth I (1600) to trade in East Indies; sets up Presidency towns: Surat (1613), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), Calcutta (1690)
  • Gains monopoly on textiles, spices, tea; engages in lucrative opium trade (exports to China)
• Expansion through diplomacy and warfare
  • Exploits the decline of the Mughal Empire after 1707 to gain influence in Bengal and beyond
  • Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive defeats Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah, securing control of Bengal’s revenues and key forts
  • Battle of Buxar (1764): EIC victory over combined Mughal and Awadh forces, granting Company Diwani (revenue collection) rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa
• Establishment of political control
  • Implements a dual administration in Bengal (Company collects revenue; Nawab retains nominal authority) before transitioning to direct rule
  • Introduces Subsidiary Alliances (Lord Wellesley) to coerce Indian states into treaties: rulers pay for British troops and accept British Residents (e.g., Awadh, Hyderabad)
  • Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): annexes states without a male heir (Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, etc.), reducing princely autonomy
• Administrative practices
  • EIC officials (governors, collectors, judges) appointed to govern provinces; Hindu and Muslim legal experts (Pandits) translate and advise on local laws
  • Early legal reforms (Regulating Act 1773, Pitt’s India Act 1784) are passed to curb EIC corruption and introduce Parliamentary oversight
• Economic motivations
  • Bengal’s rich revenue post-Plassey finances Company dividends and British pensions (often called the Drain of Wealth)
  • Trading factories become centers of commodity collection (Indian cotton and opium shipped to Europe; silver incoming to India)

British Political Strategies and Diplomatic Alliances

• Exploiting Indian divisions
  • British adopt a Divide and Rule policy, pitting Indian states against each other to prevent unified resistance
  • By forming treaties with some princes and wars against others, the British systematically expanded control (e.g., annexing Awadh in 1856 citing misrule)
• Paramountcy under the Crown (post-1858)
  • After 1857, the British Crown supersedes the East India Company (Government of India Act 1858)
  • The Viceroy of India represents the British monarch; an Executive Council assists in governance
  • Provinces are reorganized (Bombay, Madras, Bengal Presidencies and North-Western Provinces, Punjab, etc.), with most territories under direct rule and some under indirect control (princely states)
• Relations with princely states
  • British guarantee autonomy to ~565 princely states in return for loyalty: their rulers accept British Residents, control foreign affairs stays with the British, and no independent armies
  • The doctrine of Paramountcy: princely rulers acknowledge British suzerainty (no independent treaties, etc.) but retain internal sovereignty
  • Many royal titles and honors (gun-salute states, knighthoods) are granted to secure loyalty
• Annexation policies
  • Subsidiary Alliance: Indian states must host British troops and cede territory as needed (e.g., Ajmer ceded in 1818)
  • Doctrine of Lapse: annexation of states without heirs (Bhopal, Jhansi) expands British India’s footprint
• Major conquests through diplomacy and war
  • Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818): defeat of the Maratha Confederacy brings most of India under British control
  • Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–49): annexation of the Sikh Empire’s Punjab province
  • British exploit succession disputes and internal divisions (e.g., Mysore wars, Hyderabad’s subsidiary alliances) to expand territory

Princely States and Indirect Rule

• Role of princely states under the Raj
  • Around 565 princely states (e.g., Hyderabad, Mysore, Gwalior, Travancore) remain in internal autonomy under British paramountcy
  • Rulers accept British Residents, allowing them to keep local administration in exchange for British military protection and guidance
• Subsidiary Alliances and expansion of control
  • Many rulers enter Subsidiary Alliances (early 19th century): accept permanent British garrisons and pay for their upkeep, effectively losing control of defense
  • Doctrine of Lapse: annexes states (e.g., Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi) that lack a natural heir; used to bring wealthy states under direct British rule
• Administration in princely domains
  • Local governance continues under native administrators, but with British oversight in strategic matters
  • Some states implement social and military reforms under British guidance (e.g., Sindh under British annexation, Hyderabad’s police reforms)
• Interaction with nationalist politics
  • Initially many princes support the British for legitimacy; however, abuses by British agents and internal discontent lead some to align with anti-colonial sentiments
  • After independence, integration of princely states (led by Sardar Patel) shapes modern India’s map

Military Campaigns and Conflicts

• Wars between colonial powers on Indian soil
  • Carnatic Wars (1746–1763): Anglo-French struggles in southern India determine British supremacy over French
  • Anglo-Dutch conflicts and global wars with Indian theaters (e.g., Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, 1780s)
• Major battles shaping colonial control
  • Battle of Plassey (1757): Decisive Company victory in Bengal (Bengal revenue lands, future tax base)
  • Battle of Buxar (1764): Secures Company control of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa (Diwani rights)
  • Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799): British defeat Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan (Four wars); Mysore’s defeat (1799) adds territory
  • Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818): British subdue Maratha Confederacy in three campaigns; end of major Maratha resistance
  • Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849): British annex the Sikh Empire (Punjab) after two wars
• Naval battles and coastal conquests
  • Napoleonic Wars era: British Royal Navy captures French and Dutch Indian settlements (e.g., Isle de France/Ceylon, Dutch Malacca)
  • The Battle of Trafalgar (1805) boosts British naval dominance globally, indirectly securing Indian Ocean routes
• Indian troops in colonial wars
  • Indian sepoys serve in British campaigns abroad (e.g., against Mysore, in Egypt, and in World War I/II)
  • Indian cavalry and infantry play crucial roles in sieges (e.g., storming of Seringapatam, 1799)
• Frontier conflicts
  • Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–42, 1878–80) and Great Game tensions: Indian Army campaigns on NW frontier
  • Expansion into Burma (Anglo-Burmese Wars) and conflicts with Tibet/China reflect imperial security concerns

Economic Exploitation and Trade

• Colonial economic policies
  • Mercantilism: The British viewed India as a source of raw materials and a captive market for manufactures
  • Establishment of trade monopolies: East India Company, later the Crown, control salt, opium, tea, cotton, etc.
• Drain of wealth
  • Indian revenue funds British expenses (pensions, civil and military costs), resulting in a systematic drain of silver and savings to Britain
  • Indian middle-class figures (e.g., Dadabhai Naoroji) highlight the economic Drain Theory: wealth transferred out of India
• Development of cash crops and plantations
  • Promotion of indigo, cotton, jute, tea for export to British factories; plantation economies develop (tea in Assam, coffee in South India)
  • Shift away from subsistence agriculture contributes to recurring famines (Bengal 1770, Madras 1876–78, Bengal 1943) when crops fail
• Trade and commerce transformation
  • Exports: raw materials (cotton, grains, opium, spices) to British markets; imports: British manufactured goods (textiles, machinery)
  • Imposed tariffs and Navigation Acts favor British goods: Indian weavers and artisans outcompeted by cheap factory products
• Infrastructure for profit
  • Construction of railways, canals, and roads funded by colonial revenues primarily to move goods to ports
  • Over 50,000 miles of track by early 20th century unify markets but mainly serve resource extraction and troop movement
  • Telegraph lines connect administration; postal service expanded (first postage stamps 1854)
• Banks and currency
  • Introduction of a unified rupee and coinage reforms standardize taxation and trade
  • Founding of colonial banks (Bank of Bengal 1806, Bank of Bombay 1840, Bank of Madras 1843) finance trade and government
• British trade monopolies
  • East India Company charter (1600) grants exclusive trading rights to Britain
  • Cornwallis’s Commercial Code (1786) abolishes internal trade barriers, benefiting British industry
• Control of commodities
  • Salt Acts (1882) enforce a government monopoly on salt production, leading to the Salt Satyagraha (1930) in protest
  • Opium trade: British compel peasants in Bihar/Bengal to grow opium, exporting it to China (leading to the Opium Wars and Treaty ports)
• Currency and banking
  • The Company rupee (rupee coin) becomes a stable currency for British taxation and trade
  • Colonial banks facilitate loans and finance for railways and plantations
• Ports and shipping
  • Expansion of major ports (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras) to handle increased colonial commerce
  • Shipping laws grant British vessels monopoly; Indian producers forced to sell at low prices to Company agents

Land Revenue Systems and Agriculture

• Introduction of revenue settlement systems (late 18th – early 19th c.)
  • Permanent Settlement (1793) in Bengal: Landlords (Zamindars) made owners of land in return for fixed payments to the Company; peasants pay rent to zamindars
  • Ryotwari System (Thomas Munro, early 19th c.): individual cultivators (ryots) pay taxes directly to the government (used in Madras, Bombay)
  • Mahalwari System: village communities (Mahals) are collectively responsible for land revenue (used in Punjab, NW Provinces)
• Impacts on rural society
  • Heavy taxes force many peasants into debt, leading to widespread landlessness and migration
  • Empowerment of landlords: zamindars and jagirdars gain official status, often exploiting tenants for profit
  • Traditional agrarian economies destabilized; moneylenders flourish, causing peasant impoverishment
• Cash-crop agriculture
  • Government incentivizes indigo, opium, cotton, tea cultivation for export, reducing staple food production
  • This transformation causes dependency on market prices; crop failures can trigger hunger
• Irrigation and agrarian improvements
  • Some irrigation projects (e.g., Punjab canal colonies, Godavari projects) expand cultivable land and yields
  • However, investment in rural infrastructure is limited; many regions suffer from poor irrigation and frequent famines
• Famine and demographic effects
  • Colonial policies exacerbate famines: high taxes and export demands leave little reserve for locals
  • Mortality in famines (e.g., 1876–78, 1899–1900) underscores vulnerability of colonial agrarian policy
  • Population growth under colonial rule shifts urban-rural balance; cities grow around ports and administrative centers

Cultural Impact and Social Changes

• Western education and intellectual exchange
  • Macaulay’s Minute (1835) champions English education; leading to English-medium schools and colleges for the Indian elite
  • Universities established (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras in 1857); technical and missionary schools spread Western science and liberal ideas
  • A new class of English-educated Indians (professionals, lawyers, teachers) emerges, bridging Indian and Western thought
• Social reform under colonial aegis
  • British policies abolish certain traditional practices: Sati is banned (1829) as “barbaric” under Governor-General William Bentinck
  • Legal codifications address child marriage, widow remarriage, caste in personal law, influenced by social reformers and colonial judiciaries
  • These reforms, though often praised as benevolent, are also seen as interfering in Indian society
• Missionary activities and religious revival
  • Christian missionaries set up schools, colleges, and hospitals (e.g., Serampore College 1818, Madras medical missions)
  • Conversion efforts and critical views of Indian religion provoke counter-movements: Hindu and Muslim religious reform and revivalism
• Cultural nationalism and social critique
  • Indian reformers (Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda) blend Western ideas with tradition, sparking the Bengal Renaissance
  • Growth of printed press and literature in vernacular languages, aided by printing press and relaxed press laws (Press Act 1835)
• Enduring legacies
  • English becomes a link language and remains prominent post-independence in administration and education
  • Hybrid cultural influences: Indo-Saracenic architecture (British buildings with Indian motifs), introduction of Victorian social clubs, railways shaping a pan-Indian consciousness
  • Re-examination of caste and religion under colonial surveys (census classifications) influences Indian identity politics

Education and Missionary Activities

• Expansion of Western-style education
  • Wood’s Despatch (1854) calls for a system of national education, leading to state-sponsored schools and colleges across India
  • Missionary societies and British colonial government found institutions (e.g., Hindu College Kolkata 1817, University of Calcutta 1857) to train civil servants and professionals
  • Emphasis on English language and Western curriculum creates an English-educated middle class (lawyers, teachers, bureaucrats)
• Role of Christian missions
  • Missionaries (Protestant and Catholic) establish schools and universities (e.g., Serampore College, Madras Christian College) and hospitals, often introducing modern sciences
  • Translations of the Bible and other texts into local languages spread literacy but also generate backlash from traditional elites
• Curriculum debates and reforms
  • Orientalist vs. Anglicist debate: Orientalists advocate support for traditional learning (Sanskrit, Persian), Anglicists (led by Macaulay) push for English education
  • Over time, Anglicist approach prevails, linking education to bureaucratic service rather than patronage of classical learning
• Education and society
  • Women’s education begins (Maharshi Vidyasagar, Savitribai Phule, Christian missionaries advocate for girls’ schools, widow education)
  • New educational opportunities empower social reformers and later nationalist leaders (Tagore, Gandhi, Nehru)
• Impact on colonial control
  • Education trains clerks and teachers who promote both colonial values and seeds of dissent
  • The spread of print culture and literacy enables nationalistic literature and political ideas to circulate widely

Social and Legal Reforms

• British legislative interventions
  • Banning of Sati (widow immolation) in 1829 and suppression of Thuggee (highway robbery cult) in the 1830s portrayed as moral duties of the Raj
  • Abolition of slavery in British territories (Slavery Abolition Act 1833 extends to Ceylon plantations)
• Codification of personal laws
  • British compile and codify Hindu and Muslim laws for courts (Anglo-Hindu Law, Anglo-Mohammedan Law) to administer inheritance, marriage, and property disputes
  • Panchayat and local councils (Nyaya Panchayats) handle minor civil cases, blending traditional systems with colonial oversight
• Social reform movements
  • Indian reformers influence legal change: e.g., Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar campaigns lead to Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856)
  • Progressive ideas on education, caste, and gender (Ram Mohan Roy’s Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Aligarh movement) gain traction under new intellectual freedom
• Women and education
  • British support for female education (though limited) leads to first women’s colleges and nursing schools; social reformers work for women’s rights
  • Child marriage and purdah are challenged publicly; some colonial officials back legislation (e.g., Age of Consent Act 1891)
• Caste and census
  • The colonial census (first in 1872, regular from 1881) records caste and religion, making social categories administratively significant
  • Official classification sometimes ossifies caste identities, impacting social dynamics
• Long-term effects
  • Western ideas introduce concepts of individual rights and equality, influencing movements against untouchability (e.g., Ambedkar)
  • Simultaneously, legal reforms reaffirm some traditions, creating tensions between change and continuity

Administrative Structures and Governance

• Colonial bureaucracy and civil service
  • Establishment of the Indian Civil Service (ICS): a bureaucracy initially for Britons (through competitive exams, opened to Indians in 1861) overseeing all major posts (collectors, commissioners, judges)
  • District administration standardized: District Collectors (established by Cornwallis 1793) handle revenue, law and order, reporting to provincial governors
  • Indians employed in subordinate roles (clerks, pundits, police), while top ranks remain overwhelmingly British
• Law and judiciary
  • Codification of Indian laws: Indian Penal Code (1860), Civil and Criminal Procedure Codes (1861–64) create unified legal framework
  • Establishment of High Courts in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras (1862) and later in other provinces (Allahabad, Lahore, etc.); appeals can even go to Privy Council in London
• Local self-government
  • Limited local bodies (municipalities, district boards) formed in late 19th century (Lord Ripon’s 1882 Resolution) to involve Indians in taxation and civic affairs
  • These bodies manage waterworks, roads, and schools at local level, but powers and funding remain modest
• Census and data collection
  • Decennial censuses (first comprehensive in 1881) gather data on population, caste, religion, occupations; colonial planning uses statistics to manage resources
  • Surveys (e.g., Economic and Ethnographic) attempt to classify Indian society and economy under colonial logic
• Communication networks
  • Railway network: first passenger train (Bombay–Thane, 1853); by 1900 India has second-largest rail system (≈ 40,000 miles) enabling movement of goods and troops
  • Telegraph and postal services expand: first telegraph line (Calcutta to Diamond Harbour, 1851); by 1900 an extensive telegraph grid links provincial headquarters
• Revenue and finance
  • India’s revenues are managed centrally: budgets prioritized imperial defense and administration; indigenous development spending is minimal
  • Long-term debt incurred for railways and infrastructure builds up colonial revenues

Infrastructure and Modernization

• Transportation networks
  • Railways: rapid expansion (Bombay–Calcutta rail link by 1874) to connect ports with hinterlands; 1st-class and 3rd-class services establish patterns of travel and trade
  • Roads and canals: key routes (Grand Trunk Road upgraded) and canal systems (Punjab canal colonies 1859) improve internal communication
  • Steamships and navigable rivers (e.g., Ganges steam navigation) facilitate coastal and river transport under colonial control
• Communications
  • Telegraph lines (first Calcutta–Kanpur, 1853) allow near-instant transmission for administrative orders; by 1900, 50,000 miles of telegraph wires across India
  • Postal reforms: introduction of stamp system (1854) and regular mail service connect even rural post offices for official and commercial correspondence
• Public works and industry
  • Mining expansion: coal mining in Bengal (Raniganj 1770s) and Assam oilfields (1860s) to fuel railways and factories
  • Irrigation projects: Ganges canal (opened 1854), Godavari and Krishna projects (mid-1800s) improve agriculture and support new cash crops
• Urban development
  • Colonial cities (Bombay, Madras, Calcutta) grow into modern ports/administrative centers with Victorian infrastructure (harbors, docks, bridges)
  • New cities planned (New Delhi constructed 1911–33 as imperial capital) and civil lines (European quarters) established
  • Basic amenities: municipal waterworks, sewage, and hospitals set up in cities (Simla becomes summer capital with planned services)
• Technological transfer
  • Printing press proliferation leads to spread of newspapers (English and vernacular) in 19th century
  • Industrial technology (steam engines, telegraph, gunpowder) introduced primarily for state enterprises and military

Indigenous Resistance and Rebellions

• Early revolts against Company rule
  • Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellions (Bengal, 1770s–80s): ascetic groups (sanyasis, fakirs) revolt against heavy taxation and loss of pilgrimage income under Company rule
  • Paharia Uprisings (Jharkhand, 1770s–1800s): tribal chiefs challenge new revenue settlements and landlords empowered by the British
  • Poligar Wars in Tamil region (1799): local chieftains (“Poligars”) resist British annexation of Mysore; ultimately defeated by Wellesley
• Peasant and tribal movements
  • Santhal Rebellion (Bengal/Bihar, 1855–56): Santhal tribes revolt against exploitative moneylenders and zamindars, demanding land rights
  • Munda Ulgulan (Chotanagpur, 1899–1900): Tribal leader Birsa Munda leads Jharkhand uprising against British land policies and missionaries
  • Other localized revolts: Indigo Revolt (Bengal, 1859–60) by peasant indigo planters; Deccan Riots (Maharashtra, 1875) by peasants against moneylenders
• The 1857 Rebellion (First War of Independence)
  • Sparked by sepoy grievances over greased cartridges, it spreads into a broad uprising of soldiers, peasants, and some princes (Delhi, Awadh, Kanpur, Jhansi)
  • Major leaders: Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Tatya Tope, Bahadur Shah Zafar (last Mughal Emperor)
• Aftermath of 1857
  • British retribution: mass executions, land confiscations, exile of Bahadur Shah Zafar (end of Mughal lineage)
  • Transfer of power: EIC dissolved; British Crown institutes direct rule (1858) claiming to respect Indian traditions while tightening control
  • Army reforms: sepoys segregated by caste/regiment, more British troops stationed in India
• Legacy of resistance
  • Martyrs of 1857 and other rebels become symbols of nationalism in later decades
  • British policy changes: more inclusive (limited) consultation (Legislative Councils expanded), but continued suppression of dissent

Rise of Nationalist Movements

• Early political organizations (late 19th century)
  • Indian National Congress (INC) founded 1885: a forum for moderate leaders (Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale) to petition for civil rights and greater representation
  • All India Muslim League founded 1906: to safeguard Muslim interests under colonial rule
  • Moderates (balancing British-style reforms with petitions) give way to more assertive strategies
• Extremist phase and mass protests (1900s–1910s)
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai advocate swaraj (self-rule) and direct action, inspiring youth
  • Partition of Bengal (1905): British separate Muslim-majority East Bengal from Hindu-majority West, fueling outrage
  • Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905–1908): widespread burning of British textiles and support for indigenous goods; emergence of national symbols (national flag, songs)
• Gandhi and national mass movements
  • Mahatma Gandhi returns (1915) and promotes nonviolent resistance: Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), Civil Disobedience (Salt March 1930)
  • Mobilizes peasants, workers, women in peaceful protest (Khadi production, village panchayats), making independence a grassroots cause
  • British view Gandhi as “Mahatma” threat: leaders jailed (e.g., Jawaharlal Nehru in 1921), moves like arresting Gandhi spark larger upsurges
• Revolutionary activities
  • Younger radicals (Subhas Chandra Bose, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh) and secret societies (HSRA, Jugantar, Ghadar Party) undertake armed actions to complement mass politics
  • WWI: Indian soldiers exposed to global ideas; post-war revolutionary incidents (Kakori train robbery, Delhi conspiracy case) challenge British authority
• Constitutional reforms and limited self-rule
  • Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) introduce separate Muslim electorates to curb Hindu majority, planting communal seeds
  • Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): dyarchy in provinces; elected Indian ministers in provincial legislatures
  • Government of India Act (1935): provincial autonomy and bicameralism proposed; empowers Indian leaders to form governments (INC dominates 1937 elections)

World Wars and Their Impact on South Asia

• World War I (1914–1918)
  • India as the British Empire’s “Jewel in the Crown” supplies 1.3 million troops and vast resources (guns, money, food) to the Allied war effort
  • War-time promises: British assure post-war reforms (1917 Montagu Declaration); Indian leaders expect greater self-government after the war
  • Economic strain: inflation and high taxes discontent the populace; British suppress dissent (e.g., Rowlatt Act 1919) leading to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• Interwar period influences
  • Heightened nationalism: Gandhi’s movements (Non-Cooperation 1920s) reflect war’s impact on political consciousness
  • Communal tensions increase: as politics intensify, colonial “divide-and-rule” and separate electorates foster Hindu-Muslim divisions (Bengal, Punjab)
  • Global Depression (1930s) hits India: collapsing export markets cause unemployment and unrest; Indians increasingly view British rule as exploitative
• World War II (1939–1945)
  • British unilaterally involve India in WWII; Indian leaders demand freedom in return. The Cripps Mission (1942) fails to promise realistic self-rule
  • Quit India Movement (1942): Congress calls for immediate independence; mass protests begin, quickly crushed by British with mass arrests
  • Indian troops (over 2.5 million) fight on multiple fronts (North Africa, Europe, SE Asia); Subhas Chandra Bose forms the Indian National Army (INA) with Japanese help
• Post-war consequences
  • Britain emerges weakened and in debt; Labour Party elected (1945) more sympathetic to decolonization
  • Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946) and widespread civil unrest alarm the British, making India’s independence seem urgent
  • International pressure (UN, US) and Indian demands make continued colonial rule unsustainable

Colonialism in Burma and Sri Lanka (Ceylon)

• British expansion into neighboring regions
  • Burma: Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885) lead to British annexation of Upper Burma; by 1886 Burma is administered as part of British India (until 1937)
  • Ceylon (Sri Lanka): Dutch oust Portuguese by late 17th century; British capture coastal Ceylon (1796) and Kandyan kingdom (1815), making it a crown colony (1833)
• Economic exploitation
  • Burma: teak logging, oil exploration (Mandalay oilfields) begin under colonial companies; rice and teak become major exports
  • Ceylon: British introduce plantation economy—tea, rubber, coconut—exported to Britain; build railways (e.g., Kandy line 1867) and docks for trade
• Cultural and political changes
  • Burma: fall of monarchy leads to administrative reorganization by colonial civilians; traditional elites (nobility, sangha) lose power
  • Ceylon: British encourage migration of Tamil labor from South India for tea plantations, heightening ethnic tensions between Sinhalese and Tamils
• Resistance and nationalism
  • Burma: rebellions (Saya San 1930) against colonial taxes; emergence of nationalist parties (Dobama Asiayone demanding Burmese self-rule)
  • Ceylon: formation of Ceylon National Congress (1919), push for dominion status achieved in 1948 (no mass bloodshed as in India)

Path to Independence and Partition

• Negotiations for self-rule
  • Cripps Mission (1942) fails to promise India freedom after WWII, angering Congress and League leaders
  • Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) proposes a united federation; initial acceptance but later breakdown due to conflicting demands of Congress (unitary) and Muslim League (Pakistan)
  • Communal tensions escalate: Muslim League demands for Pakistan rejected by Congress; large-scale riots (Direct Action Day 1946) in Bengal and Bihar
• Partition of British India
  • Lord Mountbatten, last Viceroy, concludes that partition is the only viable solution to avoid civil war
  • Mountbatten Plan (June 1947): India and Pakistan created as separate dominions; princely states choose joining one dominion or the other
  • The Radcliffe Line divides Punjab and Bengal along religious lines; hastily drawn, it leads to one of history’s largest migrations (~10–15 million) and massive communal violence (death toll ~1–2 million)
• Independence and aftermath
  • August 14–15, 1947: British India dissolves; India (with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister) and Pakistan (Muhammad Ali Jinnah as Governor-General) become independent nations
  • Princely states accede: most (Hyderabad, Junagadh, Kashmir) see negotiated or military settlements (Hyderabad annexed 1948, Kashmir conflict)
  • Partition leaves deep scars: Kashmir conflict begins, refugees resettle, and new governments adopt inherited colonial laws and institutions (constitution drafting from 1947–1950)
• Colonial legacies at independence
  • Division of assets: British troops and bureaucracy partitioned; British retain strategic bases until early 1950s
  • Adoption of colonial infrastructure and systems: railways, civil service, judiciary, English education continue under new leadership
  • Social and economic structures (land tenure, class divisions) largely unchanged at first, influencing postcolonial politics and economies

Colonial Power	Territories in South Asia	Arrival Era	Control Methods	Economic Focus	Cultural Legacy
Portugal	Goa, Daman & Diu, parts of Malabar and Sri Lanka	16th century (1498)	Seized forts, missionary efforts, trade monopoly	Spices (pepper, cinnamon)	Indo-Portuguese Creole, churches (Goa), Catholic missions
Netherlands	Sri Lanka (coast), Malabar, Bengal posts (17th c.)	17th century	VOC charters, alliances with local rulers, spice trade	Spices (cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper)	Dutch forts (Galle), impact on Sri Lanka’s spice economy
France	Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Karaikal, Mahe, Yanaon	Late 17th – 18th cent.	Military alliances (with Mysore, Nawabs), limited colonies	Textiles, local trade, naval contests	French language influence (Pondicherry), secular schools
Britain	Most of India, Burma, parts of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Maldives	17th century onward	Company rule, warfare (Plassey, Buxar), treaties/annexations	Tea, cotton, indigo, opium exports	English language, railways, administrative and legal systems
Others	Danish, Swedish posts (Tranquebar, Serampore), minor forts	18th century (1720s–1800s)	Trading factories, limited forts	Local trade goods	Minimal lasting impact

Conclusion

• Imperialism and colonialism from the 18th to 20th centuries transformed South Asia’s political, economic, and social fabric.
• European powers (British, Portuguese, French, Dutch) carved spheres of influence using military force, diplomacy, and economic control.
• Colonial policies introduced new administrative systems and infrastructure (railways, telegraphs, legal codes) but often prioritized extraction over local welfare.
• The era saw significant cultural interactions: Western education and Christian missions sparked reform movements, while colonized societies revived and reinterpreted indigenous traditions.
• Widespread resistance—peasant revolts, tribal uprisings, and nationalist struggles—ultimately undermined colonial rule.
• The partition of British India in 1947 marked the end of formal colonialism, yet its legacy persists: modern borders, institutions, and social divisions in South Asia owe much to this imperial past.

1. How did British economic policies transform agriculture and commerce in colonial India? (250 words)
2. Critically examine the methods and impact of mass movements led by Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian independence struggle. (250 words)
3. Assess the British strategy of indirect rule through princely states, including policies like the Doctrine of Lapse, and their impact on colonial governance. (250 words)